Although the modern state, the Republic of Iraq, is a relatively short history of the country and its people dates back over 5,000 years. Indeed, Iraq contains the world’s richest known archaeological sites. Here, in ancient Mesopotamia (land between the rivers), the first civilization – that Sumer – appeared in the Middle East. Despite the millennium separating the two epochs, Iraqi history displays a continuity shaped by adaptation to both the outgoing and ebbings Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic, Dijlis and Furat, respectively). Allowed to flow freely, the rivers flood wrought terrible destruction that have flooded entire towns. When the rivers were controlled by irrigation dams and water, the land was very fertile.
The dual nature of the Tigris and the Euphrates – their potential to be destructive or productive – has resulted in two distinct legacies found throughout Iraqi history. On the one hand, enabled the resources of Mesopotamia to the abundant water and lush river valleys for the production of surplus food that served as the basis for the civilizing trend begun at Sumer and preserved by the leaders of Hammurabi (1792 – 1750 BC), Cyrus (550-530 BC), Darius (520-485 BC), Alexander (336-323 BC) and the Abbasids (750-1258). The ancient cities of Sumer, Babylon and Assyria were all located in what is now Iraq. Surplus food production and irrigation, and the joint efforts of flood control have facilitated the growth of a strong state and growing.
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Mesopotamia could also be a major threat, however, the development of their peoples to seek security of the vicissitudes of nature. Throughout Iraqi history, various groups have formed autonomous, social, autonomous units. Religious fidelity to the ancient gods of Ur and Eridu, a member of Shiat Ali (or party of Ali, the small group of followers that supported Ali ibn Abu Talib as rightful leader of the Islamic community in the seventh century), residence in Asnaf (guilds) or Mahallat (city neighborhoods) of Baghdad under the Ottoman Turks, who belongs to one of a multitude of tribes – efforts to create autonomous provide security structures have exerted a powerful centrifugal force on Iraqi culture.
Two other factors that have prevented political centralization are the absence of a stone, and geographic location of the east part of Iraq and the Arab world. Much of the history of Iraq, the lack of stone has severely hindered the: street. Consequently, in many parts of the country remained under government control. Also, since nonArab borders Turkey and Iran, and the high agricultural potential of the river valley, Iraq has attracted waves of ethnically diverse migrations. Although this influx of people has enriched Iraqi culture, is also disturbed by the country’s internal balance and led to deep schisms.
Throughout the history of Iraq, a conflict of political fragmentation and the focus is reflected in the struggles between the tribes and the urban food production over the valleys and river plains. When a central power neglected to keep repairing water supply, the country fell into disuse, and tribes attacked settled peoples precious and scarce agricultural products. Almost 600 years between the fall of the Abbasid in the thirteenth century and the last years of the Ottoman period in the late nineteenth century, the state’s authority was weak and tribal Iraq was virtually independent. At the beginning of the twentieth century, most of Iraq, and often competing, ethnic groups, religious and tribal loyalty professed little or nothing to the central government. Consequently, all-consuming concern of contemporary Iraqi history has been a falsification of the nation-state out of this diverse and conflicting social structure and the concomitant variation parochial loyalties, both tribal and ethnic, as part of national identity.
Sumer, Akkad, Babylon and Assyria
Contemporary Iraq occupies the territory that historians have traditionally considered the site of the earliest civilizations of the ancient Middle East. Geographically, modern Iraq corresponds to the Mesopotamia of the Old Testament and other, older, Near Eastern texts. In Western mythology and religious tradition, the land of Mesopotamia in ancient times was a land of lush vegetation, abundant wildlife and abundant, if unpredictable water resources. Therefore, in a very early date, which attracts people from neighboring countries, but the less hospitable. 6000 BC, ancient Mesopotamia had been settled primarily by migrants from the highlands of Turkey and Iran.
Civilizations from Sumer that was developed in two contrasting factors: The unpredictability of the ‘Euphrates and Tigris, which at any time could be devastating floods that wiped out entire populations, and the extreme fertility of the valleys and the river, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil . Thus, while the river valleys of southern Mesopotamia attracted migrations of neighboring peoples and made possible for the first time in history, more and more food than the volatility of the rivers in the required form of collective management to protect the marsh, the low flood in March. Since the overproduction of growth, and collective management became more advanced, and the process of urbanization evolved Sumerian civilization took root.
Sumer is the ancient name for southern Mesopotamia. Historians are divided on when the Sumerians arrived in the region, but they agree that the people of Sumer was a mixture of linguistic and ethnic groups that made up the ancient inhabitants of the region. Sumerian culture mixed foreign and local elements. The Sumerians were highly innovative people who responded creatively to the challenges of variable Tigris and Euphrates. Many Sumerian great heritage, such as writing, irrigation, the wheel, astronomy and literature, can be considered as adaptive responses to large rivers.
The Sumerians were the first people known to have devised a plan of representation in writing as a means of communication. From the earliest writings, which were pictograms (simplified pictures on clay tablets), the Sumerians gradually created cuneiform – a way of arranging impressions stamped on clay by the wedge-shaped part of a reed cut-off. The use of combinations of the same basic wedge shape to stand for phonetic, and possibly for syllabic, elements of communication that are more flexible than the symbol. Through writing, the Sumerians were able to pass on complex agricultural techniques to successive generations, and this has led to marked improvements in agricultural production.
Another important Sumerian legacy was the recording of literature. The most famous Sumerian epic and that has remained almost the most complete form is the epic of Gilgamesh. The story of Gilgamesh, who actually was king of the city-state of Uruk around 2700 BC, is a moving story of the king of deep sadness at the death of his friend and as a result of his quest for immortality. Other key themes of the story is a devastating flood and the weak nature of human existence. Laden complex abstractions and emotional expressions, the epic of Gilgamesh reflects the intellectual sophistication of the Sumerians, and has served as the prototype of all the flood stories Middle East.
The uncertain existence in southern Mesopotamia also led to a highly developed sense of religion. Centers of worship, such as Eridu, dating back to 5000 BC, served as important centers of pilgrimage and devotion even before the rise of Sumer. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities emerged in areas surrounding the centers of worship pre-Sumerian, reinforcing the close relationship between religion and government.
The Sumerians were pantheistic, their gods, more or less personified local elements and natural forces. In exchange for sacrifice and adherence to a complete ritual, the gods of ancient Sumer were to provide the individual with security and prosperity. A powerful priesthood emerged to oversee ritual practices and to intervene with the gods. Sumerian religious beliefs also had important political aspects. Decisions regarding the rental of land, agricultural issues, trade, commercial relations and the war was determined by the priesthood, because all property belonging to the gods. The priests ruled from their temples called ziggurat, which were essentially artificial mountains of sunbaked brick, built with outside staircases that tapered to a temple on top.
As the well-being of the Community depended on close monitoring of natural phenomena, scientific or protoscientific occupied most of the priests of the time. For example, the Sumerians believed that each represented a number of gods. Number sixty, good God, was their basic unit of calculation. Minutes to an hour and marking the position of a circle were Sumerian concepts. A well-developed agricultural system and a sophisticated irrigation and water control systems, which enabled Sumer to achieve the overproduction led to the growth of large cities. The most important city-states were Uruk, Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Agade, Akshak, Larsa, and Ur (birthplace of the prophet Abraham). The emergence of urban life has led to further technological developments. The lack of stone, the Sumerians made significant advances in technology in brick, which allows the construction of huge buildings, such as the famous ziggurat of Ur.
Sumer also pioneered advanced technologies of war. In the mid-third millennium BC, the Sumerians had developed the chariot wheels. At the same time, the Sumerians discovered that tin and copper bronze cast is still being produced – a new metal stronger and more difficult. The wheels of chariots and bronze weapons became more important that the Sumerians developed the institution of kingship and that each city-states began to vie for supremacy.
Historians generally divide Sumerian history into three stages. In the first phase, which lasted from about 3360 BC to 2400 BC, was the most important political development of the emergence of kings, which, unlike the first priestly rulers, held various political rather than religious authority . Another important feature of this period was the emergence of war Sumerian city-states fought for control of river valleys in lower Mesopotamia. In the second phase, which lasted from 2400 BC to 2200 BC, Sumer was conquered in approximately 2334 BCE Sargon I, king of the city of Akkad Semitic. Sargon was the first empire builder, sending his troops as far as Egypt and Ethiopia. He tried to establish a world empire, and to end hostilities between the States of the city. Sargon the government introduced a new level of political organization, which was characterized by an even clearer separation between religious authority and secular authority.
Despite his military prowess, Akkadian hegemony over southern Mesopotamia lasted only 200 years. Sargon’s great-grandson was then overthrown by the Guti, the mountain people of the east. Sumer and Akkad in the fall and later re-emerge under the King of Ur, who won the Guti, ushered in the third phase of Sumerian history. In this final phase, which was characterized by the synthesis of Sumerian and Akkadian cultures, the king of Ur established hegemony over much of Mesopotamia. Sumerian supremacy, however, was waning. By 2000 BC, in combination with the attacks of the Amorites, Semitic people from the west, and the Elamites, the people of the Caucasus from the east, had destroyed the Third Dynasty of Ur. Invaders, however, to make Sumerian-Akkadian cultural legacy.
Amorites established cities on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and made Babylon, a city in the north, their capital. During the time of their sixth ruler, King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), Babylonian rule covering a large area covering most of the valley of the Tigris River, Sumer and the Persian Gulf in the south of Assyria in the north. And rule over a large area, Hammurabi devised an extensive administrative structure. His greatest achievement was to publish a code of law to “bring to justice prevailing in the country, to destroy the wicked and the wicked that the strong may not oppress the weak.” Code of Hammurabi, not the earliest to appear in the Middle East, but surely the most complete, dealt with land, housing, women, marriage, divorce, inheritance, contracts, control of public order, justice, wages and working conditions .
In the legal code of Hammurabi, civilizing trend begun Sumer had evolved into the new complex. The sophisticated legal principles contained in the code reflect a highly developed civilization in which social interaction extended far beyond the limits of kinship. A large number of laws relating to trade reflects a diversified economic base and extensive sales network. Policy, Code of Hammurabi is clearer evidence of different religious and secular authorities of what had been ancient Sumerians. In addition, the legal code of Hammurabi, the Babylonians made other important contributions, especially in astronomy, science, and greater flexibility in the development of cuneiform script icon to represent a syllable instead of a single word.
Since about 1600 BC, the Indo-European speaking tribes invaded India; other tribes settled in Iran and Europe. One of these groups, the Hittites, allied itself with the Kassites, a people of unknown origin. Together, they conquered and destroyed Babylon. Hittite power subsequently declined, but in the first half of the fourteenth century BC, the Hittites reemerged, controlling an area that stretched from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. The military success of the Hittites has been attributed to their monopoly in iron production and use of the car. However, in the twelfth century BC, the Hittites were destroyed, and no great military power occupied Mesopotamia until the ninth century BC.
One of the cities that flourished in the middle of the Tigris Valley during this period was that Ashur, named after the sun god of the Assyrians. The Assyrians were Semitic speakers who occupied Babylon for a brief period in the thirteenth century BC Invasions of iron-producing nations in the Middle East and the Aegean region in approximately 1200 BC disrupted the indigenous empires of Mesopotamia, but eventually the Assyrians were able to exploit new adaptations of power in the region. Because of the so-called “barbarous and unspeakable cruelty of the Assyrians,” the names of the Assyrian kings as Ashurnasirpal (883-859 BC), Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BC), Sennacherib (704 – 681 BC) and Ashurbanipal (669-626 BC) continue to produce images of mighty conquerors militarily brilliant, but brutally savage.
The Assyrians began to expand westward in the ninth century, by 859 they had reached the Mediterranean Sea, where they occupied Phoenician cities. Damascus and Babylon fell to the next generations of Assyrian rulers. During the eighth century BC, the Assyrian control of his empire seemed fragile, but Tiglath-Pileser III seized the throne and rapidly subdued Assyria’s neighbors, captured Syria, and was crowned king of Babylon. He developed a very capable war machine to create a standing army under the administration of a well-organized bureaucracy. Sennacherib built a new capital, Nineveh along the Tigris River, destroyed Babylon (where citizens had risen in revolt), and a vassal state of Judah.
In 612 BC, revolts of subject peoples in combination with the allied forces of two new kingdoms, those of the Medes and Chaldeans (Babylonians New), effectively to extinguish Assyrian power. Nineveh was razed. The hatred that the Assyrians inspired, particularly, for the most part the policy of resettlement of subject peoples, was sufficiently large to ensure that some vestiges of Assyrian rule remained two years later. The Assyrians had used the visual arts to illustrate his many conquests, and Assyrian friezes, executed in detail, are still the best artifacts of Assyrian civilization.
Chaldeans became heir to Assyrian power in 612 BC, and the lands they conquered formerly Assyrian-held Syria and Palestine. King Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 BC) conquered the kingdom of Judah and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC aware of their past, the Chaldeans sought to reestablish Babylon as the city’s most beautiful in the Middle East. It was during the Chaldean, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, celebrated as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world was created. Due to the remoteness of a priesthood by the king, however, has been severely weakened the monarchy, and was unable to resist the rise of the Achaemenid Iran. In 539 BC, Babylon fell to Cyrus the Great (550-530 BC). In addition to incorporating Babylon into the Iranian empire, Cyrus the Great released the Jews who had been held captive there.
Iranian and Greek incursions
Mesopotamia, 2000 years, and the fortress Semitic-speaking peoples, now fell to the Indo-European rule that lasted for 1176 years. Cyrus, one of the truly great leaders in history, dominated by a strong hand, but it was also very much in line with the needs of his subjects. After assuming power, he was immediately replaced by the brutality of the Assyrians, and with respect for the customs and institutions of his new subjects. He appointed competent provincial governors (the predecessors of Persia satraapit), and required his subjects only in homage and obedience. After the death of Cyrus, a brief period of unrest followed the Babylonian exile in 522 BC, which culminated a general rebellion of Iranian colonies.
Between 520 and 485 BC, the Iranian leader, efficient and innovative, Darius the Great, reimposed political stability in Babylon and ushered in a period of great economic prosperity. His greatest successes were the construction of roads – which significantly improve the communication between the provinces – and the organization of a bureaucracy efficient. The death of Darius, 485 BC, followed by a period of decline, which led to a great revolt of Babylon, 482 BC The Iranians violently quelled the uprising and the oppression of Babylon was badly damaged economic infrastructure.
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The first Iranian kings in Iraq to the rule followed management practices conscientiously Mesopotamian lands. Between 485 BC and the conquest of Alexander the Great in 331 BC, but very few of Babylon was repaired and some of the formerly great cities remained intact. Trade was also significantly reduced during this period. They established trade route from Sardis to Susa did not traverse Babylonia and the Iranian leadership, but much closer to the East, was able to monopolize the trade of India and other points east. As a result, Babylon and Assyria, which together form the ninth session satrapy of the Persian Empire, economically isolated and impoverished. Their poverty was exacerbated by the very high taxes on them, they were the crown of Iran 1000 talents of silver a year, in addition to having to meet the exorbitant demands for local administrators, and they were responsible for feeding the Iranian court for four months each year.
Iranian state lasted for over 200 years, from 551 BC to 331 BC During this time, many Iranians have added to the ethnically diverse population of Mesopotamia. The flow of Iranians in Iraq, which began during the reign of the Achaemenids, initiated a major demographic trend that will continue intermittently for the majority of Iraqi history. Another important effect of the rule in Iran was the disappearance of the languages of Mesopotamia and the widespread use of Aramaic, the language of empire.
By the fourth century BC, with the difference all Achaemenid Babylon. Thus, when Iranian forces stationed in Babylon surrendered to Alexander the Great of Macedonia in 331 BC Babylonia was all hailed as a liberator. Alexander quickly won the favor of Babylon, contrary to the Achaemenid, he showed respect for the Babylonian traditions, such as the worship of their chief god, Marduk. Alexander also proposed ambitious plans for Babylon. He planned to establish one of two places in his empire, and make Euphrates navigable all the way to the Persian Gulf, where he planned to build a large port. Grandiose plans of Alexander, however, was never realized. Returning from an expedition to the Indus River, he died in Babylon – probably from malaria contracted in 323 BC at the age of 32 years in politically chaotic period after Alexander’s death, his generals fought for and divided his empire.
Many battles fought between the Greek generals in the land of Babylon. In the second half of the Greek period, Greek military campaigns focused on conquering Phoenician ports and Babylonia was removed from both the sphere of action. The city of Babylon has lost its preeminence as a center of the civilized world where political and economic activity has shifted to the Mediterranean, where he was destined to remain for many centuries.
Despite the grand plans of Alexander of Mesopotamia were unfulfilled, and the little general was positive for Mesopotamia, the effects of the Greek occupation were noteworthy. Alexander and his successors have built dozens of cities in the Near East that were inspired by the Greek city-states. One of the most important was Seleucia on the Tigris. The Hellenization of the area include the introduction of Western deities, Western art forms and Western thought. Business revived in Mesopotamia, because one of the Greek trade routes ran through the new cities. Mesopotamia exported barley, wheat, dates, wool, and bitumen, the city of Seleucia exported spices, gold, precious stones and ivory. Cultural exchange between Greek and Mesopotamian scholars was responsible for the economy of many scientists of Mesopotamia, especially astronomical, texts.
In 126 BC, the Parties (or Arsacids), intelligent, nomadic people who had left the steppes of Turkestan and the North East, Iran, has taken on the Tigris-Euphrates river valley. Having a first conquered Iran, the Parthians were able to control all trade between the East and the world greek-Roman. For the most part, have decided to maintain the existing social institutions, and to live in the city already exists. Mesopotamia was immeasurably enriched by this, the mildest in the area of foreign occupation. The population of Mesopotamia was enormously enlarged, especially Arabs, Iranians, and Syrians. With the exception of the Roman occupation of Trajan (98-117 AD) and Septimius Severus (AD 193-211), Arsacid closed until a new force of native Iranian rulers, the Sassanids, conquered the area of 227 AD.
There is little information available on the Sassanid occupation, which lasted until 636. The north has been devastated by the battles between Romans and Sassanids. Most seem to have neglected Sassanid Mesopotamia. When the weakened Sassanian empire fell to Muslim Arab warriors, Mesopotamia was in ruins, and the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization died out completely. Sassanid neglect of canals and irrigation ditches vital for agriculture had allowed the rivers to flood, and parts of the land has become barren. However, the last Mesopotamian culture in many traditions of the West. The basic principles of mathematics and astronomy, the coronation of kings and symbols as the tree of life, the Maltese cross and the crescent are a part of the legacy of Mesopotamia.
Our ancestors began their needs through the development of more and more technology news. The hunters gradually became farmers. To prepare the ground for planting, farmers designed the sickle, the hoe and the plow. The era of agriculture was about to begin.
During the agricultural era, people got together and stayed in one place. They formed villages centered on agriculture and domestic animals such as cows and horses. They learned to plant and harvest many crops.
Large, permanent shelter replaced the nomadic tents. The people of each community were assigned to specific jobs. Some people were hunters, some developed agricultural techniques, and others took care of the animals. Artisan-made products for sale and trade. The fibers in fabrics, wrought metals for tools and carved wooden furniture.
The farm had been a time of change, which lasted until early 1800. However, it all began thousands of years before in a place called Mesopotamia.
The ancient Greeks called the area of the world’s first civilization “Mesopotamia,” which means “land between rivers” or “land between two rivers.” The name is appropriate because it is ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates in the country today in Iraq in the Middle East. Twin Rivers really begins in eastern Turkey, flow southeast, converge in southeast Iraq and flow into the Persian Gulf. Although hot, dry weather mixed with seasonal flooding was difficult and demanding, farmers in the region have learned to control flooding of rivers and use the resulting fertility to produce crops such as barley, wheat, flax and sesame. The fertile ground also supported many types of fruits and vegetables.
The Sumerian City-State
The first civilization in the world was created around 3500 BC The people who created the first civilization was in southern Mesopotamia, in a place they called Sumer. They were known as the Sumerians.
The Sumerians learned to control the rivers Tigris and Euphrates rivers by building dams and irrigation canals. As a result, a stable supply of existing foods and peoples Sumerian city-states became independent.
The center of each city-state was a temple surrounded by courts and public buildings. Radiating from the main town, the houses of two stories of priests and merchants, or the upper class, one-story houses of officials, merchants and artisans, and the houses of the lower class of farmers, unskilled workers , and fishermen. City-state also included the fertile farmland outside the city walls.
Because there was no building in stone, wood and very little in Sumer, the people built their houses, public buildings and walls from the sun-dried mud bricks.
The Sumerians were very proud of their city-states. Many times city-states war with each other on border disputes. Sometimes a city-state would be an attack near city-state, just to prove his strength.
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Ziggurat
Originally, temples in the center of each city-state is based on a platform. Over time, these temples became the platform of the temple towers called ziggurats. The ziggurat is the first major building structure of the Sumerians. Built in sun-baked brick, the ziggurats were usually decorated with colorful glazed bricks.
The ziggurat housed each city’s patron god or goddess-state. Only priests were permitted inside the ziggurat, therefore, were very influential members of Sumerian society.
Cuneiform
Because the rich Sumerian city-states “increased government officials realized that an effective method of keeping records had to be developed. Evolved from simple pictographic writing, Sumerian cuneiform emerged as the global system first writing. Cuneiform means “wedge-shaped.” It consists of hundreds of verbal signs that have been “wedge” due to the shape of the reed pen, or stylus, which was used. The Sumerians wrote in clay tablets, or sun-dried or baked in the ovens for continuous writing.
Cuneiform was learned in Sumerian schools called edubbas, or houses of tablets. Only a small group of children could attend Sumerian schools. The children were usually the son of the rich.
The students worked very hard in school and Sumerian school day lasted from morning till night. Students learned reading, writing and arithmetic. Teachers highly disciplined students. For example, a default on a clay tablet deserves a beating.
All the sacrifices and education has been worth it. Once a successful student twelve years of schooling, which was an official writer or the writer. This was a prestigious position in Sumerian society. The scribes were very valuable to maintain and improve the maintenance of records that the Sumerians considered as necessary.
The Sumerians also used cylinder seals. Cylinder seals were carved in stone, and they were used for identification. For example, to identify themselves, roll his Sumerian cylinder seal on a wet clay tablet. It would make a mark on the tablet that would definitely be sun baking or oven cooking. Cylinder seals were used as signatures used today.
Sargon I
Sargon of Akkad was located in the northern part of Mesopotamia. When the power of the Sumerian city-states began to crumble due to his constant struggle, Sargon I seized the opportunity and attacked the southern region of Mesopotamia, with their armies.
After conquering all the Sumerian city-states created Sargon I-US them with Akkad, and the first world empire. His empire included all of Mesopotamia. Akkadian was the official language, but they used Sumerian cuneiform to write their language.
Hammurabi of Babylon
Sargon I ruled the region of Mesopotamia for about fifty years. When he died, the empire collapsed. The individual city-states again came to power.
Around 1800 BC, the Amorites, migrated to Mesopotamia and built their own city-state. One of the city-state, was built the name of Babylon, and was ruled by a king named Hammurabi. As Hammurabi came to power, began to conquer the city-states of Mesopotamia.
He also began to unite the city-state, but was much more successful than Sargon I, as did a lot of new reforms that better society. For example, it has improved the irrigation system, tax system and housing system of government. Also attached to the people under one religion. However, the reform of Hammurabi, who became famous was his code of laws.
Hammurabi provided uniformity among city-states by adopting a code of law. The code of law provided consistent justice and included many aspects of daily life.
Hammurabi of Babylon was a great leader, who reigned at the time often called the “Golden Age of Babylon” because of many achievements and reforms.
Technological contributions of Mesopotamia
The technological contribution affects the modern world of our ancestors ancient Mesopotamia are numerous. The ancient Sumerians created the first civilization in the world, where people settled together in an area known as the city-state. For this feat, it is ancient Mesopotamia, often referred to as the “cradle of civilization.”
Another contribution greatly affect the modern era was the creation of the Sumerian writing system (cuneiform). Although not using the same writing system, has built many different styles of writing that led to the writing of today.
Other inventions are glass, the water clock, calendar of twelve months, according to the lunar cycles, the wheel, the plow and the sailboat.
All these inventions have improved the life of the Sumerians.
This seemingly never-ending search to find new ways to make our lives easier and more fun to drive the development of new technologies, today and tomorrow.
To ensure his supremacy, Sargon created the first conscript army, a development linked to the need to mobilize a large number of workers for irrigation and flood control. Akkadian strength was boosted by the invention of the compound bow, a new weapon made of strips of wood and horn.
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